The Sail Greener Guide to Toxic Products and Health

Are you a sailor concerned about your exposure to toxic substances? Read on to learn about hidden health risks and what you can do to reduce your exposure to hazardous products.

Sailing is one of the oldest forms of “green” transportation and recreation. Sailors have launched wooden boats into lakes and seas and let the sun, moon, wind, currents, and tides propel them to their destinations for thousands of years.

Today, the sun and the wind are similar, but our boats sure have evolved. Modern boatbuilders rely on many different chemicals and compounds. Boaters use cleaners, paint, and wear technical apparel designed to protect boats and people from the harshest conditions that Poseidon can throw at them. Unfortunately, many of these products are made with “forever” chemicals that pose significant health risks to boaters and the environment.

What are toxic products you may be exposed to sailing and maintaining your sailboat? Read on to learn about about your common exposure risks when building, maintaining, cleaning, and sailing your boat. We describe these risks and how you can protect yourself and the environment.

Toxic Substances

What are examples of hazardous substances that sailors, boat builders, and boat repair professionals may be exposed to? Below we describe (in alphabetical order) some of the most common toxic products and health risks you show know.

Asbestos

Asbestos is the name given to a naturally-occurring group of minerals that are resistant to heat and corrosion. This mineral was widely used in the marine industry up until the 1980s because of these properties. Small asbestos fibers can build scar-like tissue in lungs causing asbestosis, which can lead to loss of lung function, disability, and death. According to the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), asbestos also causes cancer of the lung and other diseases such as mesothelioma of the pleura, a type of fatal malignant tumor of the membrane lining the cavity of the lung or stomach¹https://www.osha.gov/asbestos.

According to NauticEd, asbestos is potentially found in: Adhesives, marine panel linings, caulk, sealants, epoxies, resins, cement, putty, engine gaskets, heat seals, electrical insulation, and insulation.

Asbestos is no longer used in building boats, but older boats might still contain materials that contain this mineral. Boaters should take appropriate precautions and follow all appropriate regulations for working with and disposing this highly toxic substance.  OSHA and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provide excellent resources about rules, regulations, and best practices for asbestos abatement.

Carbon monoxide

According to the US Coast Guard, carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning is a leading cause of death among boaters, and CO is the most common cause of illness and death by poisoning among boaters.²https://www.uscgboating.org/library/accident-statistics/Recreational-Boating-Statistics-2018.pdf

Carbon monoxide is a byproduct of burning fuels like gasoline or propane. This gas is dangerous because it is poisonous but invisible, particularly in enclosed spaces with poor ventilation.  According to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), acute effects are caused by the production of carboxyhemoglobin in the blood, which inhibits oxygen intake. Health effects associated with carbon monoxide include:³https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/carbon-monoxides-impact-indoor-air-quality

• Low concentrations: Fatigue, chest pain in people with heart disease
• Moderate concentrations: Angina, impaired vision, reduced brain function
• Higher concentrations: Impaired vision and coordination, headaches, dizziness, confusion, nausea, flu-like symptoms, death

According to NauticEd, common potential sources of carbon monoxide in boats include:

• Engines
• Generators
• Space and water heaters
• Cooking ranges
• Blocked ventilation louvers and exhaust outlets
• Dock, anchor, or raft in close range of engines/generator exhaust for lengthy times

Diesel

Widely used in marine engines, diesel is a type of fuel derived from crude oil. Why is diesel a health risk? Diesel exhaust includes gases and small soot particles. The gas emissions include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur oxides, and hydrocarbons, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The soot emissions include particulates like carbon, organic materials (including PAHs), and traces of metallic compounds.

According to OSHA, short-term exposure to diesel exhaust can cause headaches, dizziness, and irritation of the eye, nose and throat. Prolonged exposure can increase the risk of cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary and respiratory disease and cancer.⁴https://www.osha.gov/dts/hazardalerts/diesel_exhaust_hazard_alert.html

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), part of the World Health Organization (WHO), the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP), and EPA all classify diesel engine exhaust as “carcinogenic to humans,” “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen,” or “likely to be carcinogenic to humans.”⁵https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/diesel-exhaust-and-cancer.html

What can you do to reduce diesel exhaust exposure? Numerous web sites discuss ways to clean and maintain diesel engines to reduce unhealthy emissions. Examples of strategies to reduce your exposure to diesel exhaust include using:

• Low-emission engines
• Exhaust treatment systems such as filters, catalysts and/or converters, and appropriate maintenance programs.
  • Some helpful articles on diesel analysis and maintenance for sailors
    • https://www.cruisingworld.com/sailboat-diesel-engine-analysis/
    • https://www.yachtingmonthly.com/gear/reasons-to-be-paranoid-about-diesel-34807
    • https://www.sailmagazine.com/diy/maintaining-your-diesel-exhaust
    • https://bluewateryachtsales.com/news/5-steps-for-maintaining-a-healthy-marine-diesel-fuel-system/
• Avoid using your diesel engine if you are safely able to move under sale alone

For a growing number of boaters, the best option is to swap out diesel altogether for electric propulsion. For sailors looking at purchasing a new monohull or catamaran, a wide range of electric sailboats are now on the market. Electric yachts have other limitations, such as range, cost, and battery storage capacity. Nevertheless, a growing number of sailors are exploring electric propulsion to reduce their reliance on polluting diesel engines.

Lead

Lead is a hazardous material that can accumulate in your body. Children and pregnant women are particularly at risk from lead poisoning.⁶https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/chemicals-management/lead/lead-in-marine-paints

While modern paints used for recreational sailing are lead-free, some older marine paints had high lead concentrations. According to the Australian Department of Agriculture, Water, and Environment,⁷https://www.environment.gov.au/protection/chemicals-management/lead/lead-in-marine-paints the traditional safety colors of red, yellow, and orange in particular often contained high levels of lead, as did some white paints.

Examples of exposure include dust or fumes during repairs and maintenance, wiping the pained surfaces of older boats, from old and chipped paint, or from children playing around older boats, among other routes of exposure.

How to reduce exposure to lead (examples from the Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment):

• Keep young children and pregnant women out of the work area and away from work clothes, supplies, equipment, tools or containers.
• Ensure adequate ventilation and wear a respirator that meets appropriate safety standards
• Wear protective clothing and eye protection, wash work clothes separately, and shower immediately after working.
• Vacuum only with cleaners equipped with High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters.
• Dispose of waste following appropriate regulations.

PFAS

What is PFAS?

What are PFAS chemicals? Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances are a family of thousands of widely-used chemicals.  A core feature of PFAS chemicals is that they do not break down, or do so extremely slowly, which is why they have been called “forever chemicals.” 

Many of us grew up using products like Teflon, which the DuPont company introduced in 1946, or Scotchgard™, which 3M introduced in the 1950s. Those of you who have served in the US Navy may be familiar with Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF), a type of firefighting foam the Navy required all ships to use after 134 sailors died in a fire aboard the USS Forrestal in 1967, one of the Navy’s worst disasters.⁸https://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/pfas-stewardship-us/pfas-history/

These products became ubiquitous because of their unique properties, like non-stick surfaces, water repellency, and use in firefighting.

Why is PFAS hazardous?

Unfortunately, these products are also highly toxic. Today, most people, including nearly all Americans, have one of the chemicals similar to Teflon and other nonstick products in their bodies.⁹https://www.ewg.org/key-issues/toxics/nonstick-chemicals

The features of PFAS that make them useful also mean they are persistent and accumulate or concentrate in water, air, sediment, soil, and plants. PFAS also build up in human and animal tissue. Researchers have found high concentrations of PFAS in public drinking water, fish and shellfish, and many other foods.¹⁰Kwiatkowski et al. 2020. Scientific Basis for Managing PFAS as a Chemical Class. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 7, 532-543 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances are technically defined as “chemicals with at least one aliphatic perfluorocarbon moiety (e.g., -C_nF_2n-).”¹¹Kwiatkowski et al. 2020. Scientific Basis for Managing PFAS as a Chemical Class. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 7, 532-543 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255 Major subclasses of PFAS include: perfluoroalkyl acids and perfluoroalkylether acids (together termed PFAA) and their precursors, fluoropolymers and perfluoropolyethers, and other less reactive PFAS. The best-known are perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA).¹²Kwiatkowski et al. 2020. Scientific Basis for Managing PFAS as a Chemical Class. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 7, 532-543 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255

These properties make PFAS extremely useful in the production of surfactants, friction reducers, and materials that repel water, dirt, and oil.  Examples of common products that are coated with PFAS include carpets, glass, paper, clothing and other textiles, plastic articles, cookware, food packaging, electronics, and personal care products. PFAS are also used in materials like firefighting foams.¹³Kwiatkowski et al. 2020. Scientific Basis for Managing PFAS as a Chemical Class. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 7, 532-543 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255 https://www.ewg.org/key-issues/toxics/nonstick-chemicals

What are health risks of PFAS? Studies have linked elevated blood levels of some PFAS, like PFAA, with kidney, testicular, live, and pancreatic cancer; elevated cholesterol; decreased fertility; weight gain in children and some adults; low birth weight; and weakened childhood immunity.¹⁴Kwiatkowski et al. 2020. Scientific Basis for Managing PFAS as a Chemical Class. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 7, 532-543 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00255 People are exposed to PFAS during production of the chemicals, while using products coated with these chemicals, during disposal and incineration, and by ingesting food and water contaminated with these “forever chemicals.”

Alternatives to PFAS for sailors

What are alternatives to PFAS? Fortunately, global concern over these “forever chemicals” is leading many manufacturers to find less toxic alternatives.

According to the Outdoor Industry Association, a growing number of people are interested in the sustainability of sailing jackets. According to Grandview Research, the global sailing jacket market size was valued at about US $119 million in 2018 and projected to grow steadily.¹⁵https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/sailing-jackets-market

Helly Hansen (now owned by Canadian Tire Corporation, Limited), one of the giants in sailing apparel, has created a new PFAS-free waterproof fabric called Lifa Infitity Pro. The company reported it would begin introducing the product in some of its products in 2020.

Gore (the maker of Gore-Tex), a leading supplier of waterproof fabrics, has declared it is working to be PFAS-free by 2023.  

Other companies, like Patagonia, have eliminated long-chain PFAS chemicals but still use PFAS DWR in higher-end outer wear. As of March 2021, Patagonia states on its company web page, “For critical DWR applications, like a rain jacket you’d wear for 24 hours, we do not yet have a DWR solution that meets the functional needs of these garments. The brightest chemists are helping us to find a solution for this remaining 10% of our products..”

What companies produce PFAS-free products? PFAS Central lists companies that make at least some PFAS-free outdoor gear, including Columbia, Royal Robbins, and Marmot.

As of February 2021, some of the largest sailing clothing manufacturers still appear to use PFAS chemicals in their outwear or did not provide easily-visible information about non-PFAS DWR on their websites (we looked—let us know if we missed something or information has been updated!):

• Burke Marine
• Gill Marine
• Henri-Lloyd International
• Magic Marine
• Marine Pool
• Musto (acquired by Helly Hansen in 2017)
• Nautica
• North Sails (part of Oakley Capital Private Equity)
• Outdoor Sky
• Sail Racing International
• Slam
• Zhik

For a full list of PFAS-free companies and products see pfascentral.org.

Propane

Propane and butane are examples of Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Sailors regularly use this gas as a cooking fuel because it is convenient, relatively inexpensive, widely available, and long-lasting.

What are health risks of propane? It can explode, and it has other health risks as well. Propane is heavier than air, so any unintentional release of propane, even a small leak, can eventually build up in an enclosed space. Common source sources of propane leaks occur around fittings and connections.

The US Coast Guard (USCG) requires boats store propane in sealed lockers that can let water or leaked gases flow outside. If a proper locker is not available, sailors can store cylinders on deck (but this needs to be done safely). A carbon monoxide (CO) monitor is important to identify possible leaks. Alarms with gas detectors that sense propane sounds are also available.¹⁶https://www.sailmagazine.com/diy/know-propane-system-health-safety

Styrene

Fiberglass (also known as fiber-reinforced plastic or FRP), is one of the most common materials used in boatbuilding. According to the US EPA, styrene and methyl methacrylate (MMA) are the primary volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted from fiberglass boat manufacturing materials. Resins may contain styrene, while gel coats may contain both compounds.¹⁷http://www.epa.state.il.us/air/drafts/fiberglass-boat-manufacturing-materials-ctg.pdf

What are health risks from fiberglass boat manufacture and repair? Styrene and MMA are monomers. Monomers are examples of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that partially combine with the same compound or other similar compounds through a cross-linking reaction. Some of the monomer compounds evaporate when resin and gel coat is applied and cured. Emissions can occur from evaporation of VOCs or from evaporation of VOCs from the cleaning materials.¹⁸http://www.epa.state.il.us/air/drafts/fiberglass-boat-manufacturing-materials-ctg.pdf

Styrene was first listed by the US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) as a possible carcinogen in 2011.¹⁹National Toxicology Program. NTP 12th Report on Carcinogens. Rep Carcinog. 2011;12:iii-499. PMID: 21822324) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21822324/  The National Marine Manufacturers Association (NMMA) objected to this decision, claiming there was not enough scientific evidence to support the listing.²⁰https://www.tradeonlytoday.com/dealers/industry-on-short-end-of-styrene-decision. Styrene was (and still is) listed as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen based on limited evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans, sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals, and supporting data on mechanisms of carcinogenesis.”²¹https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/roc/content/profiles/styrene.pdf

How can you reduce your exposure to unhealthy emissions from fiberglass construction and repair? 

• Use low monomer VOC resins and gel coats and by using non-atomizing resin application methods. Examples of non-atomized resin applications include: Bucket and brush application by hand, resin rollers, flow coaters, resin impregnators, and fluid impingement technology.²²http://www.epa.state.il.us/air/drafts/fiberglass-boat-manufacturing-materials-ctg.pdf
• Closed molding: In this fabrication method, reinforced plastic parts are produced between parts of a mold or between a mold and a bag or other flexible membrane. For more details on types of closed molding, see this resource.

Check your appropriate national, state (provincial), and local government regulations for specific requirements for reducing VOC emissions from boat manufacture and repair.

Reduce your exposure to toxic substances

Many products used by boaters are toxic. Some of the most hazardous materials include solvents, varnishes, cleaners, bottom paints, as well as gasoline, diesel, oil, and antifreeze.²³https://www.boatus.org/study-guide/environment/disposal/ Below we provide some suggestions for what to do with these substances and how to avoid exposure to these and other hazardous substances.

Toxic and Hazardous Waste Disposal

How can you dispose of hazardous and toxic waste?  BoatUS has a helpful guide on disposing of hazardous waste Some summary points:

• Read labels and assume anything that is labeled as not healthy for you is hazardous
• Follow directions for product use, safety, storage, and disposal.
• Try alternative products or methods of cleaning.
• Check state and local regulations about hazardous waste disposal. Your Marina may have information, and many municipalities have dedicated hazardous waste pickup days and locations.
• When possible, use less toxic propylene glycol antifreeze instead of ethylene glycol.

Fuel and Oil Discharge

In the United States, the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and the Clean Water Act make it illegal to discharge any petroleum product into the water. You are responsible for reporting any oil or fuel spill that leaves a sheen on the water to the US Coast Guard, and you will be responsible for environmental damage resulting from fuel spills.

Boat Maintenance and Cleaning

Boat maintenance can lead to exposure to hazardous materials. BoatUS suggests the following tips for environmentally friendly boat maintenance and cleaning:

• Reuse and recycle. Recycle spent antifreeze, fuel, oil, oil filters, and batteries. Use less toxic propylene glycol antifreeze whenever possible, but check before mixing it with other antifreeze for recycling.
• Tune up your engine. A tuned engine improves fuel economy and burns fuel more efficiently, causing fewer emissions from entering the air and water.
• Clean your boat bottom. Cleaning your hull and ensuring it is free of barnacles, grass and other marine growth will help reduce fuel consumption, and help increase your boats' performance. Look for less toxic anti-fouling paint.
• Recycle at your marina. Many marinas already have recycling programs but if not reach out to the manager to request locations for recyclable materials.
• Fix your prop. Damaged props can reduce the efficiency of engines, reducing fuel consumption.
• Clean your bilge. Having a clean bilge help you to spot new fuel/oil leaks and avoid discharging petroleum into the water.
• Check if your marina has a designated wash down area.
  • Wash your boat often. Try to wash your deck off regularly with fresh water and a scrub brush to reduce the need for stronger chemical cleaners.
  • Avoid toxic cleaners and clean naturally. Use natural cleaners such as vinegar and baking soda, or biodegradable cleaners and detergents. Not all products that claim to be “green” are non-toxic, so keep all cleaning products away from the water.
• Avoid topping off fuel tanks because it can lead to spillage.

BoatUS has a list of alternative cleaning products to consider A few examples include:

• All Purpose Cleaner: Mix one cup white vinegar with two gallons water
  • Fiberglass Stain Remover: Baking soda paste
  • Head Cleaner: Baking soda and a brush.
  • Varnish Cleaner: Mix 1⁄2 cup vinegar and 1⁄2 cup water solution.
  • Window Cleaner: Mix two tablespoons vinegar in one quart of water

A number of companies provide selected “eco” alternative cleaners and other products, such as Greenboatstuff. The Boat US Foundation tested 20 different boat cleaners and recommend products based on cleaning, performance, toxicity, and biodegradability. Sailors for the Sea also provides suggestions for cleaning products that are less toxic.

Wear masks and other safety gear

Wearing appropriate masks and other safety gear is also important to reduce exposure. In 2017 Practical Sailor magazine published an article on “The Best Respirators for the Boatyard.” While a bit dated, the article provides an excellent overview of types of masks for protecting yourself from hazardous materials.

Boating Accidents and Injuries

While exposure to toxic substances are longer-term risks to boaters, boaters regularly face more proximate risks from accidents and injury as well, of course. In 2019, the U.S. Coast Guard counted 4,168 accidents that involved 613 deaths, 2,559, injuries, and around $55 million dollars of damage to property from recreational boating accidents²⁴https://uscgboating.org/library/accident-statistics/Recreational-Boating-Statistics-2019.pdf. A few key statistics from the 2019 Coast Guard report:

• A majority (79%) of fatal boating accidents in 2019 were caused by drowning, and a majority of the victims (86%) were not wearing a life jacket.
• Alcohol use is the leading known contributing factor in fatal boating accidents
• Only 20% percent of deaths occurred on vessels where the operator had received a nationally-approved boating safety education certificate.
• Operator inattention, improper lookout, operator inexperience, excessive speed, and alcohol use rank as the top five primary contributing factors in boating accidents.
• Where data were known, the most common vessel types involved in reported accidents were open motorboats (45%), personal watercraft (19%), and cabin motorboats (16%).

What are the leading causes of accidents among sailors? The top five leading causes of accidents in 2019 combining the categories “Auxiliary Sail,” “Sail (only),” and “Sail (unknown propulsion),” were: Operator inattention, weather, improper lookout, machinery failure, and operator inexperience.

Injuries

Sailors experience soft-tissue injuries after falling, when hit by objects, and when caught in lines. More severe injuries and illnesses are less common. Using data from 1,188 respondents, Nathanson et al. (2010) reported the top three injuries for keel boats were leg contusions (11%), hand lacerations (8%), and arm contusions (6%). In dinghies, the top three reported injuries were leg contusions (13%), knee contusions (6%), and leg lacerations (6%). The most common mechanisms of injury were “trip/fall,” “hit by object,” and “caught in lines.” Respondents also reported that their injuries came when tacking, jibing, and during heavy weather. More severe injuries included fractures, torn tendons or cartilage, concussions, and dislocations.²⁵https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1080603210002048 Wilderness & Environmental Medicine 2010 Nathonson et al. 2010

More resources about green alternatives

The following are helpful resources for boaters concerned about toxic substances, their health, and the health of the environment.

• Clean Boating
• The Environmental Working Group (EWG) is the leader in providing information about toxic substances and healthy alternatives
• PFASCentral.org
• PFASFree.org

If you are interested in learning more about what the industry is doing, the following organizations provide more information:

• OIA
• Blue Sign
• The Madrid Statement

Finding more information

If you want to learn more about the the benefits and challenges of electric sailboats, check out The Pros, Cons, and Future of Electric Yachts and Sailboats. If you want to learn more about who is working to conserve the ocean, see our list of The Best Ocean Conservation Organizations for Sailors.

Please let us know if you have additional suggestions you think we should add to future updates of this article!